Sep 13, 2010

New York City Biodiesel Supplier Signs Contract with FreshDirect


New York City biodiesel supplier signs contract

By Kris Bevill, 02-2008

Tri-State Biodiesel, a New York City-based company that collects waste cooking oil as a feedstock for local biodiesel producers, recently agreed to supply biodiesel to a local online grocer’s 150-truck fleet, which would be the largest privately owned fleet in the city to be fueled by biodiesel.

All of FreshDirect’s trucks will be using B5 by the end of February. It began filling 30 of its trucks with B5 in early January and has been gradually phasing the fuel into the rest of the fleet. Tri-State, which purchases finished biodiesel from the same local producers it sends feedstock to, predicts that FreshDirect’s fleet will use 10 to 15 gallons of biodiesel-blended fuel per truck per day, resulting in approximately 600,000 gallons of biodiesel-blended fuel per year. Tri-State's own trucks run on B20, Baker said, and the company may increase the blend ratio if manufacturer warranties allow it.

FreshDirect’s switch to biodiesel will result in a 7.5 million-pound reduction of carbon dioxide released into New York City’s atmosphere each year, according to Tri-State.

“Our trucks are a mass transit system for food in the communities we serve, and we are committed to making the fleet run as clean-burning and low-impact as possible," said Adrian Williams, FreshDirect’s senior vice president of transportation. "Biodiesel does not require retrofitting our equipment and enables us to reduce emissions without complicated delays. Our conversion to biodiesel is but one example of our company’s environmental stewardship and support of a sustainable future for New York.”

In 2006, Tri-State began collecting waste cooking oil from various New York City restaurants. Specially outfitted tanker trucks are sent to collect the oil, free of charge, from restaurants and deliver it to Tri-State’s storage facility in Brooklyn. From there, tankers transport the waste oil to local biodiesel producers, who make the renewable fuel. Baker said Tri-State’s trucks are currently collecting from approximately 1,500 various eateries in the Manhattan, Brooklyn and Queens areas. “We’ve been expanding rapidly, and we expect that we’ll continue to do so,” he said. “Our services have been extremely well-received by the restaurants and the food preparation community. Our phones are ringing every day with new clients looking to sign up with our service.”

lthough FreshDirect is the largest fleet that Tri-State supplies biodiesel to, it isn’t the first. Tri-State has been supplying biodiesel to smaller local companies for some time, including Whole Foods Market, a natural and organic food store chain. Baker estimated that on any given day there are 50 trucks on New York streets using Tri-State’s biodiesel, and that number will increase once FreshDirect’s entire fleet begins using biodiesel.

The rising cost of soybean oil has caused to some hesitation on behalf of fleet managers to start fueling their trucks with biodiesel. However, Baker said his company works hard to keep prices competitive and that the use of Tri-State Biodiesel’s fuel in FreshDirect’s fleet is a great step toward positive exposure for biodiesel.

Source: http://www.biodieselmagazine.com/article.jsp?article_id=2032

NYC MTA Installs Hybrid Diesel Buses - old article

MTA NYC Transit and MTA Bus Combine for 850 New Hybrid Electric Bus Order




10-25-2007 - MTA New York City Transit and MTA Bus will take delivery of 850 new Orion VII low-floor Hybrid Electric buses by the end of 2009. The buses are manufactured by DaimlerChrysler Commercial Buses North America and uses the BAE Systems HybriDrive.

The buses will be sourced from a 389-vehicle purchase option on a 2005 orderand a modification to that order for an additional 461 buses, subject to approval by the Board of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority.

"The MTA's transportation network makes the entire region sustainable and we are committed to making the system itself a sustainable model," said Elliot G. Sander, Executive Director & CEO of the MTA. "Along with the sustainable commission that we launched this fall, the continuing purchase of environmentally-friendly vehicles illustrates this commitment."

The MTA and NYC Transit have been pioneers in the development of Hybrid bus technology, with experience going back more than a decade. The technology boasts lower exhaust emissions and improved fuel economy over standard buses. Bus customers also benefit from the low-floor design of the Hybrid Electrics, of which, NYC Transit currently operates the largest Hybrid fleet in the world, with 548 buses in service.

Orion-VII-hybrid-busOrion VII hybrid buses offer a HybriDrive™
diesel-electric propulsion system by BAE Systems
 propelling the bus with a singleelectric motor
that is powered by a diesel-driven generator and
an energy storage unit. The Orion hybrid is equipped with a smaller, cleaner burning diesel engine that with
quicker acceleration than other conventional
diesel-only buses using a 5.9-liter, 260 hp (194 kW)
Cummins ULSD (Ultra Low-Sulfur Diesel) engine
with a 120 kW traction generator.






The base contract for 500 bus order for NYC Transit (216) and MTA Bus (284) was approved by the MTA Board in September of 2005. There is a 389-bus option to that contract, of which 284 buses will be assigned to NYC Transit and 105 to MTA Bus. The 461 buses from the neworder will all serve NYC Transit routes.

The combined order will provide 745 new buses for NYC Transit and 105 for sister agency, MTA Bus. They will be delivered in time to serve a growing ridership and the increased equipment needs which will be generated by Bus Rapid Transit (BRT).

During the years between 1995 and 2006, NYC Transit completely changed New Yorkers' views of buses, eliminating visible tailpipe emissions (smoking buses) and significantly cleaning the exhaust profile. While the hybrids are the most technologically advanced, NYC Transit has employed several other innovations to improve air quality, including ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel, particulate filters and cleaner-burning diesel engines.

The bottom line is really impressive: from 1995 to 2006, diesel PM emissions dropped 97% and NOx emissions dropped 58%, on a per-bus basis. More than 90% of the reductions were due to the accelerated retirement and replacement of the oldest, dirtiest engines.

In a separate announcement, the MTA will mix biodiesel with its regular diesel fuels to reduce emissions, cut diesel fuel usage, and reduce costs.



Source: http://puregreencars.com/Green-Cars-News/Hybrids/MTATransit-MTABus-order-850-Hybrid-Electric-Buses.html

Sep 11, 2010

Koenigsegg CCXR Edition - Biofuel Sportscar

Koenigsegg CCXR Edition


[edit] Summary

Description The Koenigsegg CCXR - a special edition supercar that runs on bio fuel. The standar (petroleum) version produces near 1000 horse-power (bhp). The biofuel version however is even more powerful, at around 1018bhp. 0-60mph is 3.2sec. Top Speed: 250mph / 400kmh Cost wieghs in at near $654,400
Date 15 March 2008(2008-03-15)
Source selbst fotografiert am Genfer Autosalon
Author Fpm
Permission
(Reusing this file)
See below.

[edit] Licensing






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Biofuels - Info from the NYTimes

Biofuels

Overview

Charlie Neibergall/Associated Press
From the earliest days of internal-combustion engines, technological visionaries dreamed that engines would run on fuel made from plants. Experiments conducted in the 19th century showed that it was possible, and both Henry Ford and Rudolf Diesel supported the notion. Interest has waxed and waned for decades. These days, it is running high once again, and the fuels have acquired a modern moniker: biofuels.
Table of Contents
While the geopolitical and environmental risks of oil dependency may be obvious today, it was not always so. In the early days of motorized transport, fuels derived from plants lost out to fuels refined from crude oil, which could be obtained cheaply in many parts of the world just by poking holes in the ground. Not only were gasoline and diesel the cheapest fuels for many decades, but they are about as energy-dense as liquids can be, which makes them superb choices for carrying vehicles long distances. Replacing them will not be easy, and the struggle to do so has produced some of the most intense controversies of modern society.

In the search for replacements, biofuels have attained the greatest political momentum, in part because they promise lucrative new markets for farm products. In the United States, Congress had adopted extensive mandates and subsidies to get a biofuels industry off the ground, and other countries have also adopted renewable-fuel policies.

But first-generation biofuels -- chiefly, ethanol made from corn or sugar cane, or biodiesel made from vegetable oil -- have provoked intense backlash. They have been blamed for causing unintended environmental damage and for displacing production of food crops, which may have helped raise world food prices. Amid these attacks, the political momentum of biofuels has slowed in the last couple of years. In principle, biofuels offer a huge advantage over fossil fuels. The source plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they are growing, and consequently, the carbon dioxide that is released when biofuels are burned does not represent a net addition of that greenhouse gas to the atmosphere. In practice, some fossil fuels, especially natural gas, are consumed in refining today's biofuels, one source of controversy about them.

Many scientists believe second-generation biofuels made from plant wastes, or from crops specially grown for the purpose on land not suitable for food production, offer greater promise than the biofuels being produced today. But the technology to make these newer fuels is in its infancy and the claims of its advocates have yet to be proved.

Ethanol

There has been heated debate about whether carbon emissions from ethanol production and use are lower than those from oil and whether the 33 percent of the U.S. corn crop diverted to ethanol drives up the price of food. Local effects of ethanol production, however, including water pollution and consumption, have received less scrutiny.

Encouraged by legislative measures, including notably the 2007 Energy Security and Independence Act, which mandated the use of 36 billion gallons, or 136 billion liters, of biofuels annually by 2022, the U.S. ethanol industry has boomed in the last few years. There are now at least 200 ethanol plants in at least 27 states, almost all using corn as a feedstock.
Nearly all the gasoline sold in the United States today is mixed with 10 percent ethanol, known as E10. Because ethanol provides about two-thirds the energy content of oil per unit, that 10 percent volumetric replacement equals about a 6 to 7 percent gasoline displacement, minus fossil fuel inputs for growing and processing.

The industry is on track to produce 12.5 billion gallons this year and is therefore nearing market saturation to supply E10, as the United States consumes about 138 billion gallons of oil annually. In March 2009, Growth Energy petitioned the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to grant a waiver to allow gasoline to be blended with 15 percent ethanol. Because the fuel can corrode conventional car engines at higher percentages, the agency is running tests. A final ruling has been pushed to the fall of 2010.

Corn farming is the biggest source of pollution associated with ethanol production. Corn requires vastly more fertilizer and pesticides than soybeans or other potential biofuel feedstocks, such as perennial grasses, according to a 2007 report from the National Academy of Sciences.

Fertilizer and pesticide runoffs from the U.S. Corn Belt are key contributors to “dead zones” in the Gulf of Mexico and along the Atlantic Coast. A 2008 study by independent researchers, published in the academy’s Proceedings journal, calculated that increasing corn production to meet the 2007 renewable fuels target would add to nitrogen pollution in the Gulf of Mexico by 10 to 34 percent.
Water use for ethanol also concerns scientists, particularly in light of a 2003 U.S. Government Accountability Office report that found that water managers in at least 36 states expect shortages by 2013.

Modern plants use about three gallons of water to produce one gallon of ethanol. The National Academy of Sciences report estimated that a plant producing 100 million gallons a year uses as much water as a town of 5,000 people.
Reflecting environmental concerns over the expansion of biofuel crops, the 2007 energy bill called for 20 billion gallons of biofuel to be made from “advanced” feedstocks, such as cellulosic ethanol or algae, which are believed to have a lighter environmental footprint.

But there are no commercial-scale cellulosic ethanol or algae plants operating in the United States, mainly because they are not yet competitive on costs. U.S.D.A. projections show corn as the primary feedstock for U.S. ethanol production through 2020.

Biomass

Biomass power — a $1 billion industry in the United States, according to the Biomass Power Association, a trade group based in Maine — has long been considered both renewable and carbon-neutral on its most basic level.
Dozens of biomass power plants, which typically burn plant or tree matter to generate electricity, are already in operation in a variety of states, like California, Michigan and Maine. In most cases, those plants have qualified for some form of renewable energy tax incentives or other benefits, as states used them to diversify their power portfolios.

But a long-simmering debate in Massachusetts questioning the environmental benefits of biomass has culminated in new rules that will limit what sorts of projects will qualify for renewable energy incentives there. If other states — or even Congress, which is writing energy legislation of its own — follow suit, it could have wide implications for biomass developers, as well as for states trying to meet renewable energy production targets.

Ian A. Bowles, the Massachusetts secretary for energy and environmental affairs, has called for new regulations that would impose stricter standards for biomass projects seeking to qualify for state incentives. The state also plans to develop careful carbon accounting rules for biomass power, and to throw its greatest support behind plants that produce both heat and power, which are considered more efficient than ones that generate only power.

The proposed changes in Massachusetts come after a study commissioned by the state suggested that careful regulation was needed to prevent biomass development from having a negative effect on New England forests, and on the climate generally.

Industry representatives warned that the new rules could hinder efforts to meet renewable energy goals, and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions over all. But environmentalists welcomed the move, saying it would protect forests and foster responsible development of electricity generated with biomass materials. Many environmental groups say that the benefits of biomass power — and all forms of energy derived from organic sources, including biofuels — are realized only in carefully controlled circumstances. The cycle of carbon emission and absorption also unfolds over long periods of time that need to be carefully monitored.
By providing incentives without strict rules governing which materials are burned and how they are harvested, governments risk creating a rapacious industry that could gobble up whole forests, critics warn. That could ultimately increase the amount of carbon dioxide being released into the atmosphere — one of the problems that renewable energies are supposed to address.
 

The U.S. Navy's Sustainable Global Fuel Source


Tactical Biofuels - Military Power

The U.S. Navy's Sustainable Global Fuel Source
From the September, 2010 issue of Diesel Power
By Jason Thompson


1009Dp Tactical Biofuels Aries Team

The U.S. Navy, in collaboration with the aerospace company Aerojet and the energy company Biodiesel Industries, may have developed the ultimate weapon. This device might not be as glamorous as a fighter jet or as intimidating as an aircraft carrier, but it is just as important-perhaps even more so. 

Throughout history, military campaigns have always been reliant on their supply lines. Today, delivering fuel to U.S. fighting forces around the world is one of our biggest logistical burdens, in terms of financial cost and the number of lives lost. Without fuel, our military's planes, ground vehicles, ships, and generators would be useless.
1009Dp Tactical Biofuels Aries Portable Biodiesel Facility
The ARIES is a portable, satellite-controlled... 
   
  read full caption
1009Dp Tactical Biofuels Aries Portable Biodiesel Facility


The ARIES is a portable, satellite-controlled biodiesel production facility. The capacity of the modular production unit (MPU) is 3 to 10 million gallons per year. There is also a mini-MPU, which is rugged enough for combat situations and produces 100,000 gallons per year.
1009Dp Tactical Biofuels Aries Production Chart
1009Dp Tactical Biofuels Biodiesel Industries Production Database
Biodiesel Industries has a... 
   
  read full caption
1009Dp Tactical Biofuels Biodiesel Industries Production Database
Biodiesel Industries has a production database of many different types of feedstocks, such as jatropha, algae, and many others, which affords it great control over key chemistry and processing parameters.
























Aerojet
1300 Wilson Blvd.
Suite 1000
Arlington
VA  22209

www.aerojet.com
Naval Facilities Engineering Command
www.navfac.navy.mil
Biodiesel Industries
www.biodieselindustries.com

Source: http://www.dieselpowermag.com/tech/1009dp_military_power_tactical_biofuels/index.html 







Biofuel - Wikipedia

Biofuel

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Information on pump regarding ethanol fuel blend up to 10%, California.
Bus run on biodiesel.
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Biofuels are a wide range of fuels which are in some way derived from biomass. The term covers solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases.[1] Biofuels are gaining increased public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as oil price spikes, the need for increased energy security, and concern over greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels.
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials and it is made mostly from sugar and starch crops. With advanced technology being developed, cellulosic biomass, such as trees and grasses, are also used as feedstocks for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil.
Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe.
Biofuels provided 1.8% of the world's transport fuel in 2008. Investment into biofuels production capacity exceeded $4 billion worldwide in 2007 and is growing.[2]

Contents

[hide]

[edit] Liquid fuels for transportation

Most transportation fuels are liquids, because vehicles usually require high energy density, as occurs in liquids and solids. High power density can be provided most inexpensively by an internal combustion engine; these engines require clean burning fuels, to keep the engine clean and minimize air pollution.
The fuels that are easiest to burn cleanly are typically liquids and gases. Thus liquids (and gases that can be stored in liquid form) meet the requirements of being both portable and clean burning. Also, liquids and gases can be pumped, which means handling is easily mechanized, and thus less laborious.

[edit] First generation biofuels

'First-generation biofuels' are biofuels made from sugar, starch, vegetable oil or animal fats using conventional technology.[3] The basic feedstocks for the production of first generation biofuels are often seeds or grains such as sunflower seeds, which are pressed to yield vegetable oil that can be used in biodiesel, or wheat, which yields starch that is fermented into bioethanol. These feedstocks could instead enter the animal or human food chain, and as the global population has risen their use in producing biofuels has been criticised for diverting food away from the human food chain, leading to food shortages and price rises.
The most common biofuels are listed below.

[edit] Bioalcohols

Neat ethanol on the left (A), gasoline on the right (G) at a filling station in Brazil.
Biologically produced alcohols, most commonly ethanol, and less commonly propanol and butanol, are produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation of sugars or starches (easiest), or cellulose (which is more difficult). Biobutanol (also called biogasoline) is often claimed to provide a direct replacement for gasoline, because it can be used directly in a gasoline engine (in a similar way to biodiesel in diesel engines).
Ethanol fuel is the most common biofuel worldwide, particularly in Brazil. Alcohol fuels are produced by fermentation of sugars derived from wheat, corn, sugar beets, sugar cane, molasses and any sugar or starch that alcoholic beverages can be made from (like potato and fruit waste, etc.). The ethanol production methods used are enzyme digestion (to release sugars from stored starches), fermentation of the sugars, distillation and drying. The distillation process requires significant energy input for heat (often unsustainable natural gas fossil fuel, but cellulosic biomass such as bagasse, the waste left after sugar cane is pressed to extract its juice, can also be used more sustainably).
The Koenigsegg CCXR Edition at the 2008 Geneva Motor Show. This is an "environmentally friendly" version of the CCX, which can use E85 and E100.
Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline; it can be mixed with gasoline to any percentage. Most existing car petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15% bioethanol with petroleum/gasoline. Ethanol has a smaller energy density than gasoline, which means it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the same amount of work. An advantage of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is that it has a higher octane rating than ethanol-free gasoline available at roadside gas stations which allows an increase of an engine's compression ratio for increased thermal efficiency. In high altitude (thin air) locations, some states mandate a mix of gasoline and ethanol as a winter oxidizer to reduce atmospheric pollution emissions.
Ethanol is also used to fuel bioethanol fireplaces. As they do not require a chimney and are "flueless", bio ethanol fires [4] are extremely useful for new build homes and apartments without a flue. The downside to these fireplaces, is that the heat output is slightly less than electric and gas fires.
In the current alcohol-from-corn production model in the United States, considering the total energy consumed by farm equipment, cultivation, planting, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides made from petroleum, irrigation systems, harvesting, transport of feedstock to processing plants, fermentation, distillation, drying, transport to fuel terminals and retail pumps, and lower ethanol fuel energy content, the net energy content value added and delivered to consumers is very small. And, the net benefit (all things considered) does little to reduce un-sustainable imported oil and fossil fuels required to produce the ethanol.[5]
Although ethanol-from-corn and other food stocks has implications both in terms of world food prices and limited, yet positive energy yield (in terms of energy delivered to customer/fossil fuels used), the technology has led to the development of cellulosic ethanol. According to a joint research agenda conducted through the U.S. Department of Energy,[6] the fossil energy ratios (FER) for cellulosic ethanol, corn ethanol, and gasoline are 10.3, 1.36, and 0.81, respectively.[7][8][9]
Many car manufacturers are now producing flexible-fuel vehicles (FFV's), which can safely run on any combination of bioethanol and petrol, up to 100% bioethanol. They dynamically sense exhaust oxygen content, and adjust the engine's computer systems, spark, and fuel injection accordingly. This adds initial cost and ongoing increased vehicle maintenance.[citation needed] As with all vehicles, efficiency falls and pollution emissions increase when FFV system maintenance is needed (regardless of the fuel mix being used), but is not performed. FFV internal combustion engines are becoming increasingly complex, as are multiple-propulsion-system FFV hybrid vehicles, which impacts cost, maintenance, reliability, and useful lifetime longevity.[citation needed]
Even dry ethanol has roughly one-third lower energy content per unit of volume compared to gasoline, so larger / heavier fuel tanks are required to travel the same distance, or more fuel stops are required. With large current unsustainable, non-scalable subsidies, ethanol fuel still costs much more per distance traveled than current high gasoline prices in the United States.[10]
Methanol is currently produced from natural gas, a non-renewable fossil fuel. It can also be produced from biomass as biomethanol. The methanol economy is an interesting alternative to get to the hydrogen economy, compared to today's hydrogen production from natural gas. But this process is not the state-of-the-art clean solar thermal energy process, where hydrogen production is directly produced from water.[11]
Butanol is formed by ABE fermentation (acetone, butanol, ethanol) and experimental modifications of the process show potentially high net energy gains with butanol as the only liquid product. Butanol will produce more energy and allegedly can be burned "straight" in existing gasoline engines (without modification to the engine or car),[12] and is less corrosive and less water soluble than ethanol, and could be distributed via existing infrastructures. DuPont and BP are working together to help develop Butanol. E. coli have also been successfully engineered to produce Butanol by hijacking their amino acid metabolism.[13]

[edit] Green diesel

Green diesel, also known as renewable diesel, is a form of diesel fuel which is derived from renewable feedstock rather than the fossil feedstock used in most diesel fuels. Green diesel feedstock can be sourced from a variety oils including canola, algae, jatropha and salicornia in addition to tallow. Green diesel uses tradional fractional distillation to process the oils, not to be confused with biodiesel which is chemically quite different and processed using transesterification.
“Green Diesel” as commonly known in Ireland should not be confused with dyed green diesel sold at a lower tax rate for agriculture purposes, using the dye allows custom officers to determine if a person is using the cheaper diesel in higher taxed applications such as commercial haulage or cars.[14]

[edit] Biodiesel

In some countries biodiesel is less expensive than conventional diesel.
Biodiesel is the most common biofuel in Europe. It is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is a liquid similar in composition to fossil/mineral diesel. Chemically, it consists mostly of fatty acid methyl (or ethyl) esters (FAMEs). Feedstocks for biodiesel include animal fats, vegetable oils, soy, rapeseed, jatropha, mahua, mustard, flax, sunflower, palm oil, hemp, field pennycress, pongamia pinnata and algae. Pure biodiesel (B100) is the lowest emission diesel fuel. Although liquefied petroleum gas and hydrogen have cleaner combustion, they are used to fuel much less efficient petrol engines and are not as widely available.
Biodiesel can be used in any diesel engine when mixed with mineral diesel. In some countries manufacturers cover their diesel engines under warranty for B100 use, although Volkswagen of Germany, for example, asks drivers to check by telephone with the VW environmental services department before switching to B100. B100 may become more viscous at lower temperatures, depending on the feedstock used. In most cases, biodiesel is compatible with diesel engines from 1994 onwards, which use 'Viton' (by DuPont) synthetic rubber in their mechanical fuel injection systems.
Electronically controlled 'common rail' and 'unit injector' type systems from the late 1990s onwards may only use biodiesel blended with conventional diesel fuel. These engines have finely metered and atomized multi-stage injection systems that are very sensitive to the viscosity of the fuel. Many current generation diesel engines are made so that they can run on B100 without altering the engine itself, although this depends on the fuel rail design. Since biodiesel is an effective solvent and cleans residues deposited by mineral diesel, engine filters may need to be replaced more often, as the biofuel dissolves old deposits in the fuel tank and pipes. It also effectively cleans the engine combustion chamber of carbon deposits, helping to maintain efficiency. In many European countries, a 5% biodiesel blend is widely used and is available at thousands of gas stations.[15][16] Biodiesel is also an oxygenated fuel, meaning that it contains a reduced amount of carbon and higher hydrogen and oxygen content than fossil diesel. This improves the combustion of fossil diesel and reduces the particulate emissions from un-burnt carbon.
Biodiesel is also safe to handle and transport because it is as biodegradable as sugar, 10 times less toxic than table salt, and has a high flash point of about 300 F (148 C) compared to petroleum diesel fuel, which has a flash point of 125 F (52 C).[17]
In the USA, more than 80% of commercial trucks and city buses run on diesel. The emerging US biodiesel market is estimated to have grown 200% from 2004 to 2005. "By the end of 2006 biodiesel production was estimated to increase fourfold [from 2004] to more than 1 billion gallons".[18]

[edit] Vegetable oil

Filtered waste vegetable oil.
Straight unmodified edible vegetable oil is generally not used as fuel, but lower quality oil can be used for this purpose. Used vegetable oil is increasingly being processed into biodiesel, or (more rarely) cleaned of water and particulates and used as a fuel.
Also here, as with 100% biodiesel (B100), to ensure that the fuel injectors atomize the vegatable oil in the correct pattern for efficient combustion, vegetable oil fuel must be heated to reduce its viscosity to that of diesel, either by electric coils or heat exchangers. This is easier in warm or temperate climates. Big corporations like MAN B&W Diesel, Wartsila and Deutz AG as well as a number of smaller companies such as Elsbett offer engines that are compatible with straight vegetable oil, without the need for after-market modifications.
Vegetable oil can also be used in many older diesel engines that do not use common rail or unit injection electronic diesel injection systems. Due to the design of the combustion chambers in indirect injection engines, these are the best engines for use with vegetable oil. This system allows the relatively larger oil molecules more time to burn. Some older engines, especially Mercedes are driven experimentally by enthusiasts without any conversion, a handful of drivers have experienced limited success with earlier pre-"Pumpe Duse" VW TDI engines and other similar engines with direct injection. Several companies like Elsbett or Wolf have developed professional conversion kits and successfully installed hundreds of them over the last decades.
Oils and fats can be hydrogenated to give a diesel substitute. The resulting product is a straight chain hydrocarbon, high in cetane, low in aromatics and sulfur and does not contain oxygen. Hydrogenated oils can be blended with diesel in all proportions Hydrogenated oils have several advantages over biodiesel, including good performance at low temperatures, no storage stability problems and no susceptibility to microbial attack.[19]

[edit] Bioethers

Bio ethers (also referred to as fuel ethers or oxygenated fuels) are cost-effective compounds that act as octane rating enhancers. They also enhance engine performance, whilst significantly reducing engine wear and toxic exhaust emissions. Greatly reducing the amount of ground-level ozone, they contribute to the quality of the air we breathe.[20][21]

[edit] Biogas

Pipes carrying biogas
Biogas is methane produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by anaerobes.[22] It can be produced either from biodegradable waste materials or by the use of energy crops fed into anaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields. The solid byproduct, digestate, can be used as a biofuel or a fertilizer.
Note:Landfill gas is a less clean form of biogas which is produced in landfills through naturally occurring anaerobic digestion. If it escapes into the atmosphere it is a potential greenhouse gas.
  • Farmers can produce biogas from manure from their cows by getting a anaerobic digester (AD).[23]

[edit] Syngas

Syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, is produced by partial combustion of biomass, that is, combustion with an amount of oxygen that is not sufficient to convert the biomass completely to carbon dioxide and water.[19] Before partial combustion the biomass is dried, and sometimes pyrolysed. The resulting gas mixture, syngas, is more efficient than direct combustion of the original biofuel; more of the energy contained in the fuel is extracted.
  • Syngas may be burned directly in internal combustion engines or turbines. The wood gas generator is a wood-fueled gasification reactor mounted on an internal combustion engine.
  • Syngas can be used to produce methanol and hydrogen, or converted via the Fischer-Tropsch process to produce a diesel substitute, or a mixture of alcohols that can be blended into gasoline. Gasification normally relies on temperatures >700°C.
  • Lower temperature gasification is desirable when co-producing biochar but results in a Syngas polluted with tar.

[edit] Solid biofuels

Examples include wood, sawdust, grass cuttings, domestic refuse, charcoal, agricultural waste, non-food energy crops (see picture), and dried manure.
When raw biomass is already in a suitable form (such as firewood), it can burn directly in a stove or furnace to provide heat or raise steam. When raw biomass is in an inconvenient form (such as sawdust, wood chips, grass, urban waste wood, agricultural residues), the typical process is to densify the biomass. This process includes grinding the raw biomass to an appropriate particulate size (known as hogfuel), which depending on the densification type can be from 1 to 3 cm (1 in), which is then concentrated into a fuel product. The current types of processes are wood pellet, cube, or puck. The pellet process is most common in Europe and is typically a pure wood product. The other types of densification are larger in size compared to a pellet and are compatible with a broadrange of input feedstocks. The resulting densified fuel is easier to transport and feed into thermal generation systems such as boilers.
A problem with the combustion of raw biomass is that it emits considerable amounts of pollutants such as particulates and PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons). Even modern pellet boilers generate much more pollutants than oil or natural gas boilers. Pellets made from agricultural residues are usually worse than wood pellets, producing much larger emissions of dioxins and chlorophenols.[24]
Notwithstanding the above noted study, numerous studies have shown that biomass fuels have significantly less impact on the environment than fossil based fuels. Of note is the U.S. Department of Energy Laboratory, Operated by Midwest Research Institute Biomass Power and Conventional Fossil Systems with and without CO2}} Sequestration – Comparing the Energy Balance, Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Economics Study. Power generation emits significant amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs), mainly carbon dioxide (CO2). {{Sequestering CO2 from the power plant flue gas can significantly reduce the GHGs from the power plant itself, but this is not the total picture. CO2 capture and sequestration consumes additional energy, thus lowering the plant's fuel-to-electricity efficiency. To compensate for this, more fossil fuel must be procured and consumed to make up for lost capacity.
Taking this into consideration, the global warming potential (GWP), which is a combination of CO2, methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, and energy balance of the system need to be examined using a life cycle assessment. This takes into account the upstream processes which remain constant after CO2 sequestration as well as the steps required for additional power generation. firing biomass instead of coal led to a 148% reduction in GWP.
A derivative of solid biofuel is biochar, which is produced by biomass pyrolysis. Bio-char made from agricultural waste can substitute for wood charcoal. As wood stock becomes scarce this alternative is gaining ground. In eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, for example, biomass briquettes are being marketed as an alternative to charcoal in order to protect Virunga National Park from deforestation associated with charcoal production.[25]

[edit] Second generation biofuels

Supporters of biofuels claim that a more viable solution is to increase political and industrial support for, and rapidity of, second-generation biofuel implementation from non-food crops. These include waste biomass, the stalks of wheat, corn, wood, and special-energy-or-biomass crops (e.g. Miscanthus). Second generation (2G) biofuels use biomass to liquid technology,[26] including cellulosic biofuels.[27] Many second generation biofuels are under development such as biohydrogen, biomethanol, DMF, Bio-DME, Fischer-Tropsch diesel, biohydrogen diesel, mixed alcohols and wood diesel.
Cellulosic ethanol production uses non-food crops or inedible waste products and does not divert food away from the animal or human food chain. Lignocellulose is the "woody" structural material of plants. This feedstock is abundant and diverse, and in some cases (like citrus peels or sawdust) it is in itself a significant disposal problem.
Producing ethanol from cellulose is a difficult technical problem to solve. In nature, ruminant livestock (like cattle) eat grass and then use slow enzymatic digestive processes to break it into glucose (sugar). In cellulosic ethanol laboratories, various experimental processes are being developed to do the same thing, and then the sugars released can be fermented to make ethanol fuel. In 2009 scientists reported developing, using "synthetic biology", "15 new highly stable fungal enzyme catalysts that efficiently break down cellulose into sugars at high temperatures", adding to the 10 previously known.[28] The use of high temperatures, has been identified as an important factor in improving the overall economic feasibility of the biofuel industry and the identification of enzymes that are stable and can operate efficiently at extreme temperatures is an area of active research.[29] In addition, research conducted at TU Delft by Jack Pronk has shown that elephant yeast, when slightly modified can also create ethanol from non-edible ground sources (e.g. straw).[30][31]
The recent discovery of the fungus Gliocladium roseum points toward the production of so-called myco-diesel from cellulose. This organism was recently discovered in the rainforests of northern Patagonia and has the unique capability of converting cellulose into medium length hydrocarbons typically found in diesel fuel.[32] Scientists also work on experimental recombinant DNA genetic engineering organisms that could increase biofuel potential.
Scientists working in New Zealand have developed a technology to use industrial waste gases from steel mills as a feedstock for a microbial fermentation process to produce ethanol.[33][34]
Second, third, and fourth generation biofuels are also called advanced biofuels.

[edit] Third generation biofuels

Algae fuel, also called oilgae or third generation biofuel, is a biofuel from algae. Algae are low-input, high-yield feedstocks to produce biofuels. Based on laboratory experiments, it is claimed that algae can produce up to 30 times more energy per acre than land crops such as soybeans,[35] but these yields have yet to be produced commercially. With the higher prices of fossil fuels (petroleum), there is much interest in algaculture (farming algae). One advantage of many biofuels over most other fuel types is that they are biodegradable, and so relatively harmless to the environment if spilled.[36][37][38] Algae fuel still has its difficulties though, for instance to produce algae fuels it must be mixed uniformly, which, if done by agitation, could affect biomass growth.[39]
The United States Department of Energy estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require only 15,000 square miles (38,849 square kilometers), which is roughly the size of Maryland,[35] or less than one seventh the amount of land devoted to corn in 2000.[40]
Algae, such as Botryococcus braunii and Chlorella vulgaris are relatively easy to grow,[41] but the algal oil is hard to extract. There are several approaches, some of which work better than others.[42] Macroalgae (seaweed) also have a great potential for bioethanol and biogas production.[43]

[edit] Ethanol from living algae

Most biofuel production comes from harvesting organic matter and then converting it to fuel but an alternative approach relies on the fact that some algae naturally produce ethanol and this can be collected without killing the algae. The ethanol evaporates and then can be condensed and collected. The company Algenol is trying to commercialize this process.

[edit] Fourth generation biofuels

A number of companies are pursuing advanced "bio-chemical" and "thermo-chemical" processes that produce "drop in" fuels like "green gasoline," "green diesel," and "green aviation fuel." While there is no one established definition of "fourth-generation biofuels," some have referred to it as the biofuels created from processes other than first generation ethanol and biodiesel, second generation cellulosic ethanol, and third generation algae biofuel. Some fourth generation technology pathways include: pyrolysis, gasification, upgrading, solar-to-fuel, and genetic manipulation of organisms to secrete hydrocarbons.[44]
  • GreenFuel Technologies Corporation developed a patented bioreactor system that uses nontoxic photosynthetic algae to take in smokestacks flue gases and produce biofuels such as biodiesel, biogas and a dry fuel comparable to coal.[45]
  • With thermal depolymerization of biological waste one can extract methane and other oils similar to petroleum.
Hydrocarbon plants or petroleum plants are plants which produce terpenoids as secondary metabolites that can be converted to gasoline-like fuels. Latex producing members of the Euphorbiaceae such as Euphorbia lathyris and E. tirucalli and members of Apocynaceae have been studied for their potential energy uses.[46][47]

[edit] Green fuels

However, if biocatalytic cracking and traditional fractional distillation used to process properly prepared algal biomass i.e. biocrude,[48] then as a result we receive the following distillates: jet fuel, gasoline, diesel, etc.. Hence, we may call them third generation or green fuels.

[edit] Biofuels by region

Recognizing the importance of implementing bioenergy, there are international organizations such as IEA Bioenergy,[49] established in 1978 by the OECD International Energy Agency (IEA), with the aim of improving cooperation and information exchange between countries that have national programs in bioenergy research, development and deployment. The U.N. International Biofuels Forum is formed by Brazil, China, India, South Africa, the United States and the European Commission.[50] The world leaders in biofuel development and use are Brazil, United States, France, Sweden and Germany.

[edit] Issues with biofuel production and use

There are various current issues with biofuel production and use, which are presently being discussed in the popular media and scientific journals. These include: the effect of moderating oil prices, the "food vs fuel" debate,[51] carbon emissions levels, sustainable biofuel production, deforestation and soil erosion, impact on water resources, human rights issues, poverty reduction potential, biofuel prices, energy balance and efficiency, and centralised versus decentralised production models.

[edit] First generation biofuel controversies

There is controversy and political speculation surrounding first-generation biofuels due to the agricultural, economic, and social implications associated with the potential expansion of biofuel production.
  • Research has been done in China that indicates that the demand for bio-fuel feedstock such as maize, sugarcane, and cassava will significantly increase due to the expansion of biofuel production; the increased demand for feedstock will lead prices for such grain to significantly increase.[52]
  • A similar study done examining a potential increase in ethanol production capacity in the United States also predicts an upward trend in agricultural prices as a direct effect of expanding domestic biofuel production.[53]
  • Expanding biofuel production is also projected to have an effect on livestock prices. A study done in China predicted that increased maize prices, due to biofuel expansion, will indirectly cause the prices of livestock production to increase due to the heavy reliance on maize for animal feed.[54] The increase in input prices would also lead to a decrease in livestock production and ultimately decrease in the income of livestock producers, affecting families globally.
Increased agricultural prices will also provide incentives for farmers to stray away from producing other less profitable grains, causing a shift in the crop production structure, leading to a decrease in agricultural diversity subsequently diverting food away from the human food chain. In order for the United States to meet the biofuel target introduced in the Energy Independence and Security Act:
  • 40% of the land that is currently devoted to corn production would have to be converted to biofuel feedstock production.[55]
  • Shifts in crop production and the changes in world price of agricultural commodities due to the expansion of the biofuel market are expected to have global impacts on consumers.
Individuals who are food insecure will be more heavily impacted by the increase in world prices; food price volatility has the largest impact on the extremely poor, those who spend 55-75% of their income on food.[56]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

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[edit] Further reading

[edit] External links

Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel